Western philosophy refers to the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western civilization, beginning with Greek philosophy of the Pre-Socratics such as Thales, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It covers a broad range of themes and disciplines, continuously evolving and adapting through centuries up to the modern day, encompassing various branches such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and political philosophy.
Pre-Socratic philosophy is early Greek philosophy before Socrates. These philosophers primarily focused on cosmology, ontology, and the nature of being. Thales, for example, is famous for his belief that everything is made of water. He sought a single, underlying principle (archê) that could explain the diversity of the observable world.
Socrates, unlike the Pre-Socratics, turned philosophy towards human beings and their quest for virtue. He developed the Socratic Method, a form of argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to illuminate ideas. Socrates was less concerned with the physical world and more interested in ethical concepts and the pursuit of knowledge.
Plato, a student of Socrates, is known for his theory of Forms (or Ideas), which posits that non-material abstract forms represent the most accurate reality. According to Plato, the material world is only a shadow or imitation of the real world. The theory of Forms implies that knowledge of the material world is inherently flawed, and true understanding can only be achieved by studying the Forms. For example, the concept of "beauty" exists as an idea, and all beautiful things are just reflections of this ideal form.
Aristotle, a student of Plato, disagreed with his teacher on the theory of Forms. He believed that the essence of objects could be found within those objects themselves and not in some abstract realm. Aristotle is often regarded as the father of biology; he observed and classified numerous species, making significant contributions to the natural sciences. He introduced the concept of causality, distinguishing between: \begin{itemize} \item Material cause: What something is made of. \item Formal cause: The form or arrangement of something. \item Efficient cause: The primary source of the change or rest. \item Final cause: The purpose or goal of something. \end{itemize} These concepts formed the cornerstone of Western scientific inquiry.
The Hellenistic period saw the emergence of new philosophical schools. Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium, taught that virtue, the highest good, is based on knowledge; the wise live in harmony with the divine Reason (Logos) that governs nature, and are indifferent to the vicissitudes of fortune and to pleasure and pain. Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus, suggested that happiness could be achieved through the pursuit of pleasure (defined as the absence of pain) and the cultivation of a simple life. Skepticism, with figures like Pyrrho, argued that because knowledge is uncertain, we should suspend judgment and strive for mental peace.
Medieval philosophy, or the philosophy of the Middle Ages, witnessed the fusion of Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy, resulting in the philosophical development within the context of religious doctrines. Saint Augustine and Thomas Aquinas are primary figures. Augustine emphasized the concept of original sin and the necessity of divine grace for salvation. Aquinas, on the other hand, sought to reconcile Christianity with Aristotelian logic, crafting a systematic theology that explained the existence of God through five ways, including the argument from motion and the argument from contingency.
Modern philosophy begins in the 17th century, with the emergence of thinkers like Descartes, Locke, and Kant. Rationalism and empiricism became the two dominant schools of thought. René Descartes, a rationalist, famously declared, "I think, therefore I am" (\(Cogito, ergo sum\)), emphasizing the role of reason in understanding the self and the world. John Locke, an empiricist, argued that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth, and knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience. Immanuel Kant attempted to reconcile these viewpoints, proposing a framework where the mind actively shapes experiences, stating that while knowledge starts with the senses, it doesn't end there; it is also shaped by our perceptions.
Western philosophy has evolved through various epochs, from the naturalistic inquiries of the Pre-Socratics, through the ethical explorations of Socrates and his followers, to the epistemological investigations of the modern era. It has laid the foundation for many fields of human inquiry, including science, political theory, ethics, and theology. As it continues to evolve, Western philosophy remains a cornerstone of our understanding of the world and our place within it.
