The Industrial Revolution was a period of change from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. It was a period of major industrialization that began in Britain in the 18th century and then spread to other parts of the world. The term Industrial Revolution was first popularized by the English economic historian Arnold Toynbee to describe the economic development of Britain from 1760 to 1840.
The Industrial Revolution is divided into two periods:
The First Industrial Revolution refers to a period from 1760 to 1840 that saw a rapid growth of machines and industrialization. It is primarily focused on textile manufacturing and steam power. This was mostly confined to Britain and parts of the northeastern United States. During this time period, inventors created devices and machines that mechanized production.
The Second Industrial Revolution occurred from 1870 to 1914. It is also known as ‘Technological Revolution’. While the First Industrial Revolution saw steam-powered machines replacing manual labor in the industry; the Second Industrial Revolution witnessed electricity replacing steam as the main power source in the industry. The Second Industrial Revolution is considered to be an electric revolution.
The First Industrial Revolution was led by Britain, but the Second Industrial Revolution was led by the USA which began to emerge as a world economic leader.
Food production became efficient and less labor-intensive due to the adoption of intensive farming methods like crop rotation, selective breeding, heavy manuring and use of the improved version of the Chinese plough. Fewer jobs in the agricultural sector forced farmers to move into the cottage industry and newly developed factories in bigger cities.
Food prices dropped and people could now use their money to purchase manufactured goods, thus the demand for manufactured goods increased. As demand for British goods increased, merchants needed more cost-effective methods of production, which led to the rise of mechanization and the factory system.
The steam engine was integral to the Industrial Revolution. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen developed the first steam engine which was used to pump water out of mines. By 1770s, James Watt had improved on Newcomen’s work and the steam engine on to power machinery, locomotives and ships during the Industrial Revolution.
The textile industry, in particular, was transformed by industrialization.
1764 - James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny which enabled yarn to be produced in large quantities.
1776 - Adam Smith, who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, published “The Wealth of Nations.” In it, Smith promoted an economic system based on free enterprise, the private ownership of means of production, and lack of government interference.
In the 1770s, a stock exchange was established in London.
1780 - Edmund Cartwright developed power loom which mechanized the process of weaving cloth.
1793 - Eli Whitney invented Eli Whitney Cotton Gin which led to the mass production of cotton and mechanized agriculture.
In the 1790s, the New York Stock Exchange was founded
In the early 18th century, a new method of producing iron called smelting iron by Abraham Darby was discovered. This method used coke rather than charcoal and enabled higher production. Iron was used for building and railways.
1837 - William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), patented the first commercial electrical telegraph.
The Industrial Revolution brought about a greater volume and variety of factory-produced goods and raised the standard of living for many people, particularly for the middle and upper classes. However, life for the poor and working classes continued to be filled with challenges. Wages for those who labored in factories were low and working conditions could be dangerous and monotonous. Unskilled workers had little job security and were easily replaceable. Children were part of the labor force and often worked long hours and were used for such highly hazardous tasks as cleaning the machinery.
In the early 1860s, an estimated one-fifth of the workers in Britain’s textile industry was younger than 15. Industrialization also meant that some craftspeople were replaced by machines. Additionally, urban, industrialized areas were unable to keep pace with the flow of arriving workers from the countryside, resulting in inadequate, overcrowded housing and polluted, unsanitary living conditions in which disease was rampant.
Inventions and Innovations during the Second Industrial Revolution
A key scientific development was the production of ‘coal gas’ as the new fuel source. It was used to produce bright lights which allowed factories to operate longer hours.
1831 - Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction. Following this discovery the power of electricity began to rise.
1844 - Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber, thus revolutionizing the use and applications of rubber.
1846 - Elias Howe invented and patented the first every lockstitch sewing machine in the world. This invention of the Elias Howe Sewing Machine revolutionized the clothing and shoe industry.
1850s - A process called ‘Bessemer process’ was developed by Henry Bessemer for mass production of steel. The key principle of this process is removal of impurities from iron by oxidation, in a furnace. Mostly iron was used to construct buildings, ships and bridges. But after the revolution, manufacturers and constructors moved to steel.
1855 - Inventor Isaac Singer patented the sewing machine motor and his practical design could be adopted for home use.
1853 - Elisha Otis established a company for manufacturing elevators and patented a steam elevator in 1861. This invention made skyscrapers a reality.
1860 - The first internal combustion engine was built by J.Lenoi. Gas was used as fuel.
1862 - The internal combustion engine was fitted to a vehicle.
1862 - Richard Gatling invented the Gatling Gun which was the first automated machine gun.
1866 - Robert Whitehead produced the first self-propelled underwater missile known as torpedo .
1867 - Christopher Scholes invented the first practical and modern typewriter.
1870 - Carbon filament lamp was developed by Sir Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. These two scientists formed a joint company called Swan and Edison which produced the first electric bulb.
1870 - The first electric motor was constructed based on Faraday’s principle.
1876 - Alexander Graham Bell invented a device called Telephone.
1885 - Karl Benz built the first petrol fuelled motor vehicle. This was powered by internal combustion engine and had three wheels.
1886 - The first four-wheeled vehicle was built by Daimler. The first ‘car’ was called a horseless carriage. Over time the design of the first car was improved.
1887 - Heinrich Hertz discovered electromagnetic waves, also known as radio waves.
1888 - Induction electric motor was invented by Nikola Tesla.
By 1908, Henry Ford planned to mass produce the car on a production line. The modern manufacturing and car industries were born. Ford motor company built an automobile called Model T.
1901 - Guglielmo Marconi sent radio waves across the Atlantic Ocean for the first time.
1903 - Two American brothers, Wilbur and Orville Wright invented the flying machine called Airplane.
Marxism – At the height of the industrial revolution, Karl Marx wrote Das Capital and The Communist Manifesto. Marx argued capitalism was inherently unfair and he expected the workers to overthrow Capitalism.
Chartism – A working-class movement aimed at gaining political and voting rights for working-class men.
Trade unions - The large workforces and unequal incomes helped create the trade union movement in all industrial countries. Trade unions campaigned for higher wages and better working conditions.
Suffragette movement – Not directly related to the Industrial Revolution, but the late 19th century saw the emergence of women’s groups seeking to gain political rights for women.
Luddite Movement – Not a political movement, but more a direct action movement. This involved self-employed craft workers smashing machines, such as weaving looms and spinning frames, which they felt threatened their own job.
Although the overall effects of industrialization were positive, there were many bad sides too, including all the pollution and waste that was created as a side effect by the machines. Working practices also became more regimented and many people worked long hours in factories performing repetitive, and sometimes dangerous or unhealthy jobs. Child labor became prevalent. Many children worked long hours for very low pay. They were also susceptible to maimed limbs, poor health, and early death. Higher concentration of workers in new mill towns led poor sanitation and outbreaks of infectious diseases such as cholera. The slave trade emerged. In the early part of the Industrial Revolution, some industries, such as cotton were still dependent on the slave trade.
